Friday, February 5, 2021

Feeding Mechanisms of Animals

 

By: Dr. Akalesh Kumar Verma, Assistant Professor, Cotton University, Guwahati, Assam.

Feeding Mechanisms of Animals

The act or process of eating or being fed is known as feeding. There are five major types of feeding mechanism shown by different groups of animals.

1.      Suspension Feeders and Filter Feeders

2.      Fluid Feeder

3.      Substrate Feeders

4.      Bulk Feeders

5.      Deposit Feeder

1.      Suspension Feeders and Filter Feeders

Many aquatic animals are suspension feeders, which eat small organisms or food particles suspended in the water. For example, clams and oysters feed on tiny morsels of food in the water that passes over their gills; cilia sweep the food particles to the animal's mouth in a film of mucus. Filter feeders such as the humpback whale move water through a filtering structure to obtain food. Attached to the whale's upper jaw are comblike plates called baleen, which strain small invertebrates and fish from enormous volumes of water.

2.      Fluid Feeder

Fluid feeders suck nutrients rich fluid from a living host. Mosquito pierced the skin of human host with hollow, needlelike mouthparts and is consuming a blood meal. Similarly, aphids are fluid feeders that tap the phloem sap of plants. In contrast to such parasites, some fluid feeders actually benefit their hosts. For example, hummingbirds and bees move pollen between flowers as they fluid-feed on nectar.

3.      Substrate Feeders

Substrate feeders are animals that live in or on their food source. This leaf miner caterpillar, the larva of a moth is eating through the soft tissue of an oak leaf, leaving a dark trail of feces in its wake. Termites are substrate feeders that destroy wooden structures by burrowing through the wood, feeding on the cellulose. Some other substrate feeders include maggots (fly larvae), which burrow into animal carcasses (dead body of an animal).

4.      Bulk Feeders

Most animals, including humans, are bulk feeders, which eat relatively large pieces of food. Their adaptations include tentacles, pincers, claws, poisonous fangs, jaws, and teeth that kill their prey or tear off pieces of meat or vegetation. In this amazing scene, a rock python is beginning to ingest a gazelle it has captured and killed. Snakes cannot chew their food into pieces and must swallow it whole even if the prey is much bigger than the diameter of the snake. They can do so because the lower jaw is loosely hinged to the skull by an elastic ligament that permits the mouth and throat to open very wide. After swallowing its prey, which may take more than an hour, the python will spend two weeks or more digesting its meal.

5.      Deposit Feeder

An earthworm is a deposit feeder, a special type of feeder that ingests partially decayed organic material along with its substrate. As an earthworm eats its way through soil, it excretes the inorganic material and digests the organic matter the soil contains. The material excreted by the worm as it burrows and eats its way through the soil is called the worm cast.


Chaperones & Chaperonin

 By: Dr. A. K. Verma, Assistant Professor, Cotton University, Guwahati, Assam

What are Chaperones 

Chaperones are a type of molecular chaperones responsible for the folding and assembly of proteins into their native structures. Moreover, they are responsible for the remodeling of proteins with wrong conformations. Most chaperones are heat shock proteins (HSPs). They are also monomers with a molecular weight of 70-100 kDa. Furthermore, the three families of chaperones are the Hsp70 family, the Hsp90 family, and the Hsp33 family

The Hsp70 Family 

The Hsp70 family consists of the protein, Hsp70, which has the molecular weight of approximately 70 kDa. Also, it shows ATPase activity. Significantly, in the cytosol, DnaK is the type of Hsp70 in bacteria while Hsp72, which is stress-inducible, and Hsp73, which is constitutive, are the types of Hsp70 in higher eukaryotes. On the other hand, Hsp70 interacts with Hsp40 (DnaJ in bacteria) and GrpE. Here, Hsp40 stimulates the hydrolysis of ATP while GrpE serves as a factor in nucleotide exchange.  

The Hsp90 Family 

The Hsp90 family is less representative than the Hsp70 family. Moreover, cells contain a large amount of Hsp90, which is stress-dependent. HtpG is the protein of the Hsp90 family in bacteria. 

The Hsp33 Family 

The Hsp33 family contains active cysteines and Zn. The synthesis is induced by heat shock and activated by oxidative shock.  Furthermore, chaperones can be either foldases or holdases. Here, foldases assist the protein folding in an ATP-dependent manner. Examples of foldases include GroEL/GroES, DnaK, DnaJ, and GrpE. In contrast, holdases are responsible for preventing the aggregation of folding intermediates by binding to them. 

The Hsp60 Family 

In bacteria, the Hsp60 family consists of the protein GroEL, which has two rings of seven subunits, each 60 kDa. Moreover, it has an ATPase activity. Also, the cofactor of GroEL is GroES, which promotes the folding of polypeptides. On the other hand, in higher eukaryotes, Hsp60 and its cofactor Hsp10 are the proteins of the Hsp60 family. These proteins also occur in mitochondria. However, the proteins of the Hsp60 family called Cpn60 and Cpn20 occur in chloroplasts of higher eukaryotes. 

Similarities Between Chaperones and Chaperonins 

·         Chaperones and chaperonins are two groups of proteins, aiding in protein folding and unfolding. 

·         Furthermore, they assist the assembly and disassembly of proteins. 

·         Therefore, their main function is to maintain protein homeostasis. 

·         These proteins are highly conserved in evolution. 

·         Moreover, they show an ATPase activity. 

·         Most of them are heat shock proteins (HSPs). 

 

Difference Between Chaperones and Chaperonins 

Definition 

Chaperones refer to the proteins which assist the covalent folding or unfolding and assembly and disassembly of other macromolecular structures while chaperonins refer to the proteins which provide favorable conditions for the correct folding of denatured proteins, preventing aggregation. Thus, this is the fundamental difference between chaperones and chaperonins.

Size 

While chaperones are monomers with a molecular weight of 70-100 kDa, chaperonins are oligomers with a molecular weight of 800 kDa. 

Shape 

Most of the chaperones are heat shock proteins (HSPs) while chaperonins have a shape of two donuts stacked on top of one another to create a barrel. 

Function 

Furthermore, another difference between chaperones and chaperonins is that the chaperones are responsible for the folding, unfolding, assembly, and disassembly of proteins, while the chaperonins are responsible for the correct folding of denatured proteins, which prevent aggregation.  

Examples 

The chaperones include DnaK, DnaJ, GrpE, HtpG, and Hsp33 while chaperonins include GroEL/GroES and TRiC. 

 

The main difference between chaperones and chaperonins is that chaperones are proteins that assist the covalent folding or unfolding and the assembly or disassembly of other macromolecular structures, whereas chaperonins are a class of molecular chaperones which provide favorable conditions for the correct folding of denatured proteins, thus preventing aggregation.  Furthermore, chaperones are monomers with a molecular weight of 70-100 kDa while chaperonins are oligomers with a molecular weight of 800 kDa.  Chaperones and chaperonins are two groups of molecular chaperone proteins primarily responsible for the folding of proteins. Generally, most of them are heat shock proteins (HSPs). 


ASSAM PEARL FARMING AND TRAINING CENTRE


ASSAM PEARL FARMING AND TRAINING CENTRE

An Initiative by Dr. Akhilesh Kumar Verma, Assistant Professor (II) Cotton University, Department of Zoology, Panbazar, Guwahati-781001, Assam

Mobile: +91-8721925273/7002424277

Email: - akhileshverma07@gmail.com

                     akhilesh@cottonuniversity.ac.in

 

Public Facebook Group: Innovation in pearl culture (Assam)

https://www.facebook.com/groups/465458654455737

 

Aim & Objectives

 

  1. To train farmers, unemployed youth and interested volunteers in the field of pearl culture and entrepreneurship development.
  2. Best quality nucleus design and biopolymer coating.
  3. To innovate a new technique(s) of small pond pearl farming using biofloc, aquarium and geomembrane system.
  4. Community mobilization and sensitization for the pearl culture by conducting training and workshops.
  5. To create awareness about freshwater peal culture & livelihood generation of the region.
  6. Pearl oyster (mussels or clamps) breeding and conservation.

Background information

Pearls are formed by the secretion of nacre from epidermal cells within shelled mollusk mantle tissue (Dan and Ruobo, 2002; Johnston et al., 2020) The chemical composition of pearl is 82-86% calcium carbonate, 10-14% conchiolin and 2-4% carbohydrates and water. The pearl is known as the queen of jewels, and has been used for adornment and as a symbol of material wealth throughout human history. Pearl culture gives the highest gross income for unit area among aquaculture systems. Pearls are considered as multibillion dollar business with the world’s largest aquaculture activities in terms of value (Alagarswami, 1983; Paterson and Veth, 2020).  Now-a-days, cultured pearls are formed in a remarkable collusion between nature and science. The major cultured pearl producing countries now include China, Japan, Australia, Indonesia, French Polynesia, Cook Islands, Philippines, India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia and Mexico (Gervis and Sims, 1992; Southgate, 2007; Southgate, 2008; Johnston et al., 2020). The world production of pearls accounted for 78 tons worth approximately US $1042 million; whereas India import of cultured pearls is worth US $10 million per annum (Janaki, 1997; Victor and Chellam, 2000). Indian production of cultured pearls is very meagre and yet to enter in the world trade. Pearls are used in jewellery and medicine all over the India that causes an increase in pearl demand day by day (Misra et al., 2009).

North East (NE) India & Pearl culture

The entire North East (NE) India is lacking behind in pearl culture due to lack of awareness and scientific training facility in the region. Interestingly, all the well known pearl producing mussels (Lamellidens spp.) are available in different parts of Assam including (a) Lamellidens corrianus, (b) L. marginalis, (c) L. phenchooganjensis and (d) L. jenkinsi anus (Sonowal and Kardong, 2020). Moreover, the water quality and environmental condition needed for pearl culture is suitable in entire NE India. Pearl cultivation is a small effort and high profit business with limited land and no specific management required though out the cultivation process (Yan et al., 2020). Pearl farming will be an additional income generation for the local people including unemployed youths, farmers and women who are farming and having a lesser land. This scheme can uplift their income to about 8-10 times than the current income fetched from agriculture and with minimum effort and lesser land requirement that too within 250 square foot area only. This innovative pearl culture practice may provide the local people a sustainable income with a reputation in the community. Comparing with general agriculture, there is lower chances of risks in pearl cultivation.

Moreover, Biofloc technology, geomembrane and aquarium can be implemented and researched as an alternative to natural ponds for pearl culture that would enhance the possibility of pearl culture in urban as well as remote areas. Biofloc, geomembrane and aquarium can be setup at garden, rooftop and even in balcony area of building.

Considering the greater dissemination need of the technology for the development of the pearl culture production in the country with special reference to NE India, National level training on freshwater pearl culture will be started in context with community mobilization and sensitization that will also boost the entrepreneurships in the region.  The participants will be from various parts of the NE India with varied backgrounds viz., farmers, teachers, engineers, management executives, entrepreneurs and students. For farmers (male and female) free training will be provided with manual in pearl culture and other accessories materials. 


Surgery Procedure










Friday, January 22, 2021

ASSAM PEARL CULTURE AND TRAINING CENTER

 

ASSAM PEARL CULTURE AND TRAINING CENTRE

An Initiative by Dr. Akhilesh Kumar Verma, Assistant Professor (II) Cotton University, Department of Zoology, Panbazar, Guwahati-781001, Assam

Mobile: +91-8721925273/7002424277

Email: - akhileshverma07@gmail.com

                     akhilesh@cottonuniversity.ac.in

 

Public Facebook Group: Innovation in pearl culture (Assam)

https://www.facebook.com/groups/465458654455737

 

Aim & Objectives

 

  1. To train farmers, unemployed youth and interested volunteers in the field of pearl culture and entrepreneurship development.
  2. Best quality nucleus design and biopolymer coating.
  3. To innovate a new technique(s) of small pond pearl farming using biofloc, aquarium and geomembrane system.
  4. Community mobilization and sensitization for the pearl culture by conducting trainings and workshops.
  5. To create awareness about freshwater peal culture & livelihood generation of the region.
  6. Pearl oyster (mussels or clamps) breeding and conservation.

Background information

Pearls are formed by the secretion of nacre from epidermal cells within shelled mollusk mantle tissue (Dan and Ruobo, 2002; Johnston et al., 2020) The chemical composition of pearl is 82-86% calcium carbonate, 10-14% conchiolin, and 2-4% carbohydrates and water. The pearl is known as the queen of jewels and has been used for adornment and as a symbol of material wealth throughout human history. Pearl culture gives the highest gross income for the unit area among aquaculture systems. Pearls are considered as multibillion-dollar business with the world’s largest aquaculture activities in terms of value (Alagarswami, 1983; Paterson and Veth, 2020).  Nowadays, cultured pearls are formed in a remarkable collision between nature and science. The major cultured pearl-producing countries now include China, Japan, Australia, Indonesia, French Polynesia, Cook Islands, Philippines, India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia and Mexico (Gervis and Sims, 1992; Southgate, 2007; Southgate, 2008; Johnston et al., 2020). The world production of pearls accounted for 78 tons worth approximately US $1042 million; whereas India import of cultured pearls is worth US $10 million per annum (Janaki, 1997; Victor and Chellam, 2000). Indian production of cultured pearls is very meagre and yet to enter in the world trade. Pearls are used in jewelry and medicine all over the India causes an increase in pearl demand day by day (Misra et al., 2009).

North East (NE) India & Pearl culture

The entire North East (NE) India is lacking behind in pearl culture due to lack of awareness and scientific training facility in the region. Interestingly, all the well known pearl producing mussels (Lamellidens spp.) are available in different parts of Assam including (a) Lamellidens corrianus, (b) L. marginalis, (c) L. phenchooganjensis and (d) L. jenkinsi anus (Sonowal and Kardong, 2020). Moreover, the water quality and environmental condition needed for pearl culture is suitable in entire NE India. Pearl cultivation is a small effort and high-profit business with limited land and no specific management required though out the cultivation process (Yan et al., 2020). Pearl farming will be an additional income generation for the local people including unemployed youths, farmers and women who are farming and having a lesser land. This scheme can uplift their income to about 8-10 times than the current income fetched from agriculture and with minimum effort and lesser land requirement that too within 250 square foot area only. This innovative pearl culture practice may provide the local people a sustainable income with a reputation in the community. Comparing with general agriculture, there are lower chances of risks in pearl cultivation.

Moreover, Biofloc technology, geomembrane and aquarium can be implemented and researched as an alternative to natural ponds for pearl culture that would enhance the possibility of pearl culture in urban as well as remote areas. Biofloc, geomembrane and aquarium can be set up at garden, rooftop, and even in the balcony area of the building.

Considering the greater dissemination need of the technology for the development of the pearl culture production in the country with special reference to NE India, National level training on freshwater pearl culture will be started in context with community mobilization and sensitization that will also boost entrepreneurship in the region.  The participants will be from various parts of the NE India with varied backgrounds viz., farmers, teachers, engineers, management executives, entrepreneurs, and students. For farmers (male and female) free training will be provided with manual in pearl culture and other accessories materials.

GLIMPSES OF PEARL CULTURE IN COTTON UNIVERSITY

1.     Surgery Tools



2.  Surgery


3.     Best Quality non-reactive nucleus


4.     Biopolymer coated nuclei (Harvesting time reduces by 3 months)


5.     Pearl oyster (mussels or clamps) food preparation/Algae mother culture 


6.     Pearl culture in aquarium & Biofloc tank



7.     Pearls in different mussels (oysters)



     8.     Pearl culture training & Demonstration


9.     Pearl  nuclei brass mould






References:

1.      Dan, H., and Ruobo, G. (2002). Freshwater pearl culture and production in China. Aquaculture Asia7(1), 6-8.

2.      Johnston, W., Gordon, S. E., Wingfield, M., Hine, D., and Southgate, P. C. (2020). Economic feasibility of small-scale mabĂ© pearl production in Tonga using the winged pearl oyster, Pteria penguinAquaculture Reports17, 100347.

3.      Alagarswami, K. (1983). The black lip pearl oyster resource and pearl culture potential. CMFRI bulletin34, 72-78.

4.      Paterson, A., and Veth, P. (2020). The point of pearling: Colonial pearl fisheries and the historical translocation of Aboriginal and Asian workers in Australia’s Northwest. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology57, 101143.

5.      Gervis MH, Sims NA (1992). The biology and culture of pearl oysters (Bivalvia: Pteriidae). ICARM Stud Rev 21:22–41.

6.      Southgate PC (2007) Overview of the cultured marine pearl industry. In: Bondad-Reantaso MG, McGladdery SE, Berthe FCJ (eds) Pearl oyster health management: a manual. FAO fisheries technical paper. 503:7–17.

7.      Southgate PC (2008) Pearl oyster culture. In: Southgate PC, Lucas JS (eds) The pearl oyster. Elsevier Press, Oxford, pp 231–268.

8.      Victor, A C C and Chellam, A and Dharmaraj, S (2000) Pearl culture. In: Marine Fisheries Research and Management. CMFRI; Kochi, Kochi, 775-785.

9.      Janaki Ram, K. (1997). Freshwater pearl culture in India. Naga, the ICLARM Quarterly20(3-4), 12-17.

10.  Misra, G., Jena, J., and Kumar, K. (2009). Freshwater pearl crop: an emerging enterprise in the Indian subcontinent. Aquaculture Asia.4, 1-2.

11.  Sonowal, J., and Kardong, D. (2020) Nutritional evaluation of freshwater bivalve, Lamellidens spp. from the upper Brahmaputra basin, Assam with special reference to dietary essential amino acids, omega fatty acids and minerals. Journal of Environmental Biology. 41, 931-941.

12.  Yan, W. T., Lau, C. P., Leung, K. M., and Davies, S. N. (2019). Problems and prospects of revitalizing marine pearl cultivation in highly urbanized coasts: A case study of Tolo Harbour in Hong Kong. Regional Studies in Marine Science31, 100756.

 

Note: The contents are for awareness, teaching and learning.